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Are you an Australian student in need of a professional tutor to help you with your homework? Brainstorm Essays offers you a unique platform to hire some of the best writers you can find online. With our reliable service, you are assured of timely delivery regardless of your physical location in Australia. What’s more, we also hire Australian-based writers to cater for your language proficiency needs as well as delivery of well-thought out papers featuring valid examples unique to Australia.

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Sample Essay

Foundational Neuroscience

Explain the agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents, including how partial and inverse agonist functionality may impact the efficacy of psychopharmacologic treatments.

The mechanism of medication action involves binding to the receptor, which leads to either inaction or action that causes changes in the body leading to an effect. The medications have a different mechanism of action categorized as antagonists, agonists, and inverse agonists. First, an antagonist is a substance that binds to the receptor but does not cause any reaction. On the contrary, it prevention activation of the receptor by other molecules or make it ineffective (Campbell & Cohall, 2017). Agonists are the opposite in that when they bind to the receptor, they cause action, that is regulate or activate the receptor to which they bind.

Partial and inverse agonists are substances that have only a moderate effect on the receptor. A partial agonist has both the characteristics of an antagonist and an agonist. It partially activates the receptor and partially hinders its ability for activation by another agonist. Inverse agonists are associated with a different level of efficacy than an agonist. According to (Berg & Clarke, 2018), inverse agonists limit the constitutive activity of an agonist. Thus, they reveal that medications have different levels of selectivity, which is an important consideration in drug development.   

Compare and contrast the actions of g couple proteins and ion gated channels.

The impermeability of the living cell membrane makes it incapable of absorbing ions. As such, uptake of such ions occurs through certain pores referred to as the ion channels. The ion channels are either regulated by ligand-gated ion channel or G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) ion channel. GPCR are receptors that transmit a signal through G protein, which is capable of interacting with an enzyme or another ion channel to allow transmission of ions (Li, Wong, & Liu, 2014). Ligand-gated ion channels allow specific ions to go through the membrane by binding the ligand on the extracellular region of the membrane causing a change in the protein structure. In the process opening a membrane through a channel. The first similarity between the two ion channels is that they both extracellular binding domains at the N-terminus. Secondly, both receptors follow similar mechanisms associated with the transduction pathway, as well as structural patterns (Campbell & Cohall, 2017).

G-proteins are abundant in nature reaching up to 400 while and ligand-gated ion channels are few and only occur at the junction of the skeletal neuromuscular. Nevertheless, G-proteins are acted upon by slower receptors such as dopamine making them act in seconds while ligand-gated ions are faster; recording actions in milliseconds. The reason is that ligand-gated ion channels do not depend on signaling intermediates for activation. The ligand simply binds to the receptor and produces confrontational change that allows the formation of a channel and consequently the flow of ions across the membrane (Li, Wong, & Liu, 2014). On the other hand, G-proteins activate the enzymes increasing the levels of a secondary messenger in the cell, which in turn activates numerous channels and proteins that allow ions to pass through. Due to its pentameric structure, ligand-gated ions form transmembrane helixes for each of the five subunits on the channel lining that allows confrontational change to occur. In G-protein, confrontational change occurs at the cytoplasmic domain of the receptor.  

Explain how the role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action.

According to Stefanska and MacEwan (2015), epigenetics is important for understanding diseases with complex causes such as Alzheimer’s disease and cancers, as well as developing personalized medication. Epigenetic activity is essential for understanding genomic regulation beyond the common comprehension of a simple transcription factor of repression. Epigenetic activity is important for phenotypic regulation, but at the same time leads to the development of diseases particularly cancers. Rasool et al. (2015) also note that epigenetic alterations influence both the disease and normal state of a person. For example, DNA methylation is a type of epigenetic alteration that causes a disease. Understanding molecular alterations in individuals and how this affects drug response are important in utilizing the epigenetics knowledge to develop customized medicines considering the genetic factors of a person.

Explain how this information may impact the way you prescribe medications to patients

The understanding of epigenetics gives important insight into consideration and insight when prescribing medicine to patients. For a Mental Health Nurse Practitioner, it is critical to understand that patients may react differently to drugs. For example, epigenetic molecular alterations may reduce the effectiveness of drugs in a person (Schuebel, Gitik, Domschke, & Goldman, 2016). For instance, such a scenario is compounded in elderly patients who due to biological changes have reduced ability to effective drug response. According to Durakovic and Vitezić (2013), pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes that occur in older adults affect the effectiveness of the response to antipsychotic medications. Older patients present with various hereditary and neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease among others whose nature are complicated to understand (Durakovic & Vitezić, 2013). As such, when prescribing antipsychotic medications, it is essential that MHNP understands patient factors as some can have adverse side effects. The safety and efficacy of medications should be a priority.

 

References

Berg, K. A., & Clarke, W. (2018). Making Sense of Pharmacology: Inverse Agonism and Functional Selectivity. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 21(10), 962–977. doi: 10.1093/ijnp/pyy071.

Campbell, J., & Cohall, D. (2017). Pharmacodynamics—A Pharmacognosy Perspective. Pharmacognosy, 513-525. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802104-0.00026-3.

Durakovic, Z., & Vitezić, D. (2013). Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics in the elderly. Periodicum Biologorum, 115(4),517-520.

Li, S., Wong, A., & Liu, F. (2014). Ligand-gated ion channel interacting proteins and their role in neuroprotection. Front Cell Neurosci, 8, 125. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00125.

MacEwan, D. J., & Stefanska, B. (2015). Epigenetics and pharmacology. British Journal of Pharmacology, 172(11), 2701-2704. DOI: 10.1111/bph.13136.

Rasool, M., Malik, A., Naseer, M., Manan, A., Ansari, S., & Begum, I. (2015). The role of epigenetics in personalized medicine: challenges and opportunities. BMC Med Genomics, 8(Suppl 1), S5. doi: 10.1186/1755-8794-8-S1-S5.

Schuebel, K., Gitik, M., Domschke, K., & Goldman, D. (2016). Making Sense of Epigenetics. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 19(11), pyw058. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyw058.

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